Berry College - SAT Scores, Costs and Admissions Data

Berry College - SAT Scores, Costs and Admissions Data Berry College has an acceptance rate of 62 percent. Applicants can choose from the Common Application or Berrys own online application. There is no application fee. All applicants must submit SAT scores or ACT scores and a high school transcript. An essay and letters of recommendation are optional. Will You Get In? Calculate Your Chances of Getting In  with this free tool from Cappex Admissions Data (2017) Berry College Acceptance Rate: 62 percentGPA, SAT and ACT Graph for Berry AdmissionsTest Scores 25th / 75th PercentileSAT Critical Reading: 570 / 660SAT Math: 550 / 640What these SAT numbers meanTop Georgia college SAT comparisonACT Composite: 24 / 29ACT English: 24 / 30ACT Math: 22  / 27What these ACT numbers meanTop Georgia college ACT comparison Berry College Description Founded in 1902, Berry College is a private  liberal arts college  located in Rome, Georgia, a little over an hour from Atlanta. Berry has the distinction of having the largest contiguous campus in the world. At 26,000 acres, the Berry campus encompasses fields, woodlands, and an entire mountain. Students will find lots of options for outdoor activities such as biking, hiking and horseback riding. For a small college, Berry offers a wide range of academic programs through its four schools including dual-degree programs in Engineering with  Georgia Tech  and Nursing with  Emory University. Berry has a large endowment which has allowed it to expand facilities in recent years and offer all students grant aid. The college has a 12 to 1  student faculty ratio, an excellent work experience program that is open to all students, and a strong national reputation. Overall, Berry College represents an excellent educational value. Horse lovers should note that Berry made our list ofà ‚  top equestrian colleges. Enrollment (2017) Total Enrollment: 2,110  (1,978 undergraduates)Gender Breakdown: 39 percent male / 61 percent female98 percent full-time Costs (2017 - 18) Tuition and Fees: $35,176Books: $1,000 (why so much?)Room and Board: $12,260Other Expenses: $2,196Total Cost: $50,632 Berry College Financial Aid (2016- 17) Percentage of New Students Receiving Aid: 100 percentPercentage of New Students Receiving Types of AidGrants: 100 percentLoans: 54 percentAverage Amount of AidGrants: $21,883Loans: $7,700 Academic Programs: Most Popular Majors:  Animal Science, Biology, Communication, Early Childhood Education, Psychology, Business AdministrationWhat major is right for you?  Sign up to take the free My Careers and Majors Quiz at Cappex. Graduation and Retention Rates First Year Student Retention (full-time students): 78 percent4-Year Graduation Rate: 57 percent6-Year Graduation Rate: 64 percent Intercollegiate Athletic Programs Mens Sports:  Football, Swimming, Tennis, Basketball, Baseball, Golf, Lacrosse, Track and Field, SoccerWomens Sports:  Soccer, Equestrian, Track and Field, Volleyball, Swimming, Tennis, Soccer, Lacrosse, Golf Berry and the Common Application Berry College uses the Common Application. These articles can help guide you: Common Application essay tips and samplesShort answer tips and samplesSupplemental essay tips and samples Data Source: National Center for Education Statistics

Themes of the Scarlet Letter essays

Themes of the Scarlet Letter essays Themes Pertaining to The Scarlet Letter The Scarlet Letter, by Nathaniel Hawthorne, illustrates upon many ideas referring to life and ways of living. He touches on values viewed by people of all types of social status. Morals, which should be engraved in ones mind, seemed to be forgotten. These actions that should have never been performed are topics revealed in The Scarlet Letter. The actions being accomplished include ideas such as sin, revenge, and betrayal. Hawthorne uses many techniques in developing the themes that shape this novel. The act of sin occurs many times throughout the novel. Hawthorne gradually develops the sin committed by Reverend Dimmesdale. In the beginning of the book the reader has no idea who the real father of Pearl is. Not until the end of the book did the surrounding townspeople know that Mr. Dimmesdale, a reverend, was the person held responsible. Hawthorne did a good job in prolonging the secret, which in essence helped form a great theme. Although Reverend Dimmesdales disobedience wasnt clarified until the end of the story, another action going against the church started off the novel. The sin of adultery was what Hester Prynne was guilty of committing. Hawthorne decided to ripen this concept in just the opposite way of Reverend Dimmesdales sin. Her sin ended up making her the main attraction of the marketplace. As the story progressed, everyone became more mild about her sin. So as one sin was declining, another one was progressing. Since sin was constantly being seen through out the entirety of the novel, its now easy to see why sin was a main theme. Revenge being another theme in the book, was thought and planned out by a leading character in The Scarlet Letter. Building such a character as Roger Chillingworth made it easy for Hawthorne to construct a topic like revenge. By interacting Chillingworth and Mr. Dimmesdale more often towards the middle of the...

Please pick a catchy title for me Personal Statement

Please pick a catchy title for me - Personal Statement Example My home has been my place of healing. I understand the effect of a comforting smile or hand and reassuring confidence of friends and family and doctors has on a patient. As a result, my GPA has improved to 3.72 and I am sure I will make it better. The presentation of health problems in the world has increased my attention in medical studies, but my life has been my drive. I am aware that medicine is not by any means a glamorous source of easy to go money. I understand the long working hours and antisocial character that comes with it. It is an intrinsic sacrifice that I am willing and eager to take just like my parents have done with me. Medicine has been a long part of my life and I am happy that a chance to give it a new role has finally come. I eagerly wait to join a community of experts who share my kind of enthusiasm to share their knowledge and experiences, to facilitate my growth into a renowned doctor and make my parents

To what degree is Evolutionary Psychology successful in providing Essay

To what degree is Evolutionary Psychology successful in providing reductive explanations of human behaviour - Essay Example Jealous rages, for instance can easily be justified as a means to protect reproductive access and ensure that your own resources only go to your own offspring; protecting your own investment. (Buss, 2000), (Downes, 2001) Many anti-social behaviors can be justified in the interest of mere individial prosperity in a world of nature 'red in tooth and claw' as it were. Base survival for one organism is not sufficient for long-term evolutionary success. Those that most influence future generations genetically would then exhibit behavioral mechanisms that encourage efficient transmission of their genes, and maximize survival of offspring; which often means, in a context of limited resources hostility against one's own kind.Extremes of this behavior can be found in species ranging from polar bears to mice, where death of newborns at the hands of competing males is instinctual, so that one's own offspring have priority access to the resources of survival. (Derocher, et al. 1999) But in contr ast, any discussion of evolutionary psychology and its reductionary behavioral 2 implications would of course be incomplete without a discussion concerning altruism. Altruistic behaviors can find many justifications for communal species, including herd/flock animals and social insects. Assisting in the survival of the group will help one's fellows to survive; should that trait become established in the population it will foster a social structure that permits the survival of more members. Should multiple instances of a social-altruist trait become extant in the population, each instance should create a compounded likelihood of preserving itself. But that is the difficulty; getting multiple instances of that trait at the same time. In the long-run, the premise of advantage via co-survival appears supportable. But one must ask the question, if a wildebeast evolves with a strong instinct to protect others of its herd, that trait might not become extant in the population because such an organism would logically protect other members regardless of whether they share his altrusitic feelings; thereby a gene that triggers that behavior could also be beneficial to organisms which lack that gene. Which would seem to work against its own self-perpetuation. In large populations that lack altruism that outcome seems much more probable, that the lonely, good-samaritan organism must help his uncaring fellows, while at the same time still competing with them for food and mates. It may benefit the herd, but will be a detriment to that individual. It is easy then, to understand herd-animals that do not necessarily respond with any altrusitic tendencies that would put themselves at risk. Yes, swimming in a school makes it more difficult for a shark to focus on a single fish; but no member of that school will put itself at risk to try and coax a fellow out of a hazard, or confront a predator. When the lion approaches, all gazelles will run, although, if they were each to attack i n mass, it is probable they could kill a single lion; yet there would be no individual advantage for the gazelle that first manifests genes encouraging that trait. He would most likely become the one that was eaten before he could reproductively spread his valor to the rest of the population. What is needed then, in that case is a

The theory and application of auction theory in context to British car Essay

The theory and application of auction theory in context to British car auctions (BCA) - Essay Example These were informal forms of auctioning. Though this may sound absurd, they indeed held the basic principles of the aims and objectives of auctions that we have today. Today, auctions are specially organised as a system of trade for a number of aims and objectives including the ones listed below. 1. To ensure that only serious minded investors approach trading products and services 2. To create best value for products and services that are being traded 3. To ensure and enhance openness with the terms of sale of products and services to the public 4. To help bidders have a fair idea of their rates as compared to other bidders 5. To speed up the trading off process of a given product or service. Because auction is a universal or global practice, it is associated with a number of generalised assumptions that have been accepted even in academic cycles. These general assertions on auction have come to be known as auction theories and they come in different forms and types. Four of these are briefly explained below with examples. Ascending Auction: As the name suggests, there is ascension in the price of the product and the ascension is determined and commissioned by the auctioneer. Commonly known as the British auction, the auctioneer ‘separates the boys from the men’ (reduces the number of bidders) by increasing the price of the product. ... These were informal forms of auctioning. Though this may sound absurd, they indeed held the basic principles of the aims and objectives of auctions that we have today. Today, auctions are specially organised as a system of trade for a number of aims and objectives including the ones listed below. 1. To ensure that only serious minded investors approach trading products and services 2. To create best value for products and services that are being traded 3. To ensure and enhance openness with the terms of sale of products and services to the public 4. To help bidders have a fair idea of their rates as compared to other bidders 5. To speed up the trading off process of a given product or service. Establish and explain main assumptions of auction theory Types of Auction Because auction is a universal or global practice, it is associated with a number of generalised assumptions that have been accepted even in academic cycles. These general assertions on auction have come to be known as au ction theories and they come in different forms and types. Four of these are briefly explained below with examples. Ascending Auction: As the name suggests, there is ascension in the price of the product and the ascension is determined and commissioned by the auctioneer. Commonly known as the British auction, the auctioneer ‘separates the boys from the men’ (reduces the number of bidders) by increasing the price of the product. By so doing, bidders will keep falling off the bidding proceed in order that the opportunity will come to rest with only one bidder, who for the sake of the increasing nature of the bid would come to be known as the highest bidder. This is a prominent form of auction as the Auctus Development Incorporated (2009) notes

Subcapsular Orchiectomy Under Local Anaesthesia Nursing Essay

Subcapsular Orchiectomy Under Local Anaesthesia Nursing Essay Prostate cancer underwent bilateral subcapsular orchiectomy at our Hospital. In every patient, we performed orchiectomy under spermatic cord block by injection of 8-10 ml anaesthetic mixture (1% lignocaine and 0.25 % bupivacaine hydrochloride) to each spermatic cord and infiltrate at skin incision site. During the operation we monitored blood pressure, pulse rate, and record abnormal symptoms such as abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting and pain score of the procedure was assessed at the end of the operation. Results: 96 patients underwent operation under local anesthesia, 91 patients tolerate the procedure well, while other 5 patients converted to general anaesthesia due to severe pain. 5patients developed scrotal hematoma, 2 patients developed infections one of them is admitted to control because the need for dressing and debridement Conclusion: Day case bilateral subcapsular orchiectomy in patient with advanced prostate adenocarcinoma under local anaesthesia is simple, save and coast effective Key words: Subcapsular orchiectomy, bupivacaine, lidocaine Correspondence should be addressed to:- Dr Awad Kaabneh. Tel +96277414388. email :- [emailprotected] P.O.POX:-Jordan-Mdaba 11710-986 Introduction: Huggins and Hodges (1941) described the androgen dependent nature of prostate cancer by the observation that surgical castration resulted in prompt relief of pain in patients with bone metastatic prostate cancer, and since that time hormonal manipulation in the treatment of prostate cancer has evolved(1,2, 3). Prostate cancer is the most frequent visceral malignancy and the second leading cause of death in American men. It has been estimated that approximately 184 500 new cases will be diagnosed and over 39 200 men will die from prostate cancer in the United States in 1998 (3, 4, 5, 6). The annual Medicare expenditure for prostate cancer is approaching $1.5 billion, of which a large portion is spent on androgen deprivation therapy. Androgen deprivation therapy can be achieved medically using luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LH-RH) agonist or surgically by bilateral orchiectomy. While the two approaches have similar efficacy, medical therapy is significantly more expensive than surgical therapy (4, 7, 8). The trend towards day case surgery in many countries is increasing (9); it is an efficient way of using resources and reducing waiting lists. Intrascrotal operations are particularly suitable for day case surgery (2, 3, 7, 9). Regional block techniques have been used for minor urological procedures and one such technique is spermatic cord block (2, 3, 7, 9). This is a simple, cost-effective technique suitable for adults undergoing intrascrotal surgery. It is particularly appropriate when the patient is considered a poor risk for general anaesthesia (9, 10, 11, 12, 13). We report our successful experience with local anaesthesia for a series of 96 patients undergoing a bilateral Subcapsular orchiectomy in Prince Hussein Urology Center Materials and Methods: Of 96 patients from April 2004 October2008 who were diagnosed prostatic cancer. They were nonlocalized prostatic cancer or physical status not suitable for radical prostatectomy surgery. We excluded patients who were allergic to bupivacaine hydrochloride, or having severe hypertension, recent MI, unstable angina, uncorrected bleeding disorder, paraplegia and neuro- sensory deficit. During the pre-operation we explained to the patient the procedure and provided anesthesia only on the scrotal content and scrotal skin at the incision site; he would feel some pain initially during the injection of anesthetic agent, and he might have some abdominal discomfort during the cord manipulation, and postoperatively he could ambulate immediately .The patient was not allowed to take anything by mouth after midnight before the procedure. Every patient was given an intravenous line and an anaesthetist was on stand-by to give anesthesia if spermatic cord block did not work. The scrotum is prepared by pre-operative shaving and is cleansed using 10%povidone -iodine solution and draped in sterile fashion .The anaesthetic agent is a mixture of 1%lidocaine and 0.25 % bupivacaine hydrochloride was selected, the patient was in supine position. The pubic tubercle is palpated; the cord was trapped between the index and middle fingers of the surgeon; 1 cm below and medial to the tubercle was the injected point, infiltrate at skin and pass the needle vertically down to the anterior aspect of the pubic bone. In it course the needle, thus passes through the spermatic cord, 8 -10 ml of anesthetic solution is injected through the cord at slightly different angle and the needle entering the blood vessel be aware of. The instilled volume of anaesthetic solution causes visual ballooning of the grasped segment of the spermatic cord; this bulge is then gently squeezed between the thumb and index finger to disperse the anesthetic fluid within the spermatic cord. After the spermatic cord was blocked the skin at the incision site was infiltrated with 3-5 ml anesthetic fluid, 3 -5 minutes before the start of the operation so that drug became effective. Orchiectomy was performed in the midline raphae incision with epididymis sparing fashion to create a round structure mimic a small testis for cosmetic result. A longitudinal incision is made through the tunica albuginea of the testis along its free border, exposing the seminiferous tubules. The internal contents of the testis are quickly freed from the side walls by gentle squeezing the outside of the capsule. This is the most sensitive part of the procedure but if discomfort is experienced, more anesthetic fluid can be injected directly into the cord. The tubules can be disconnected at the testicular hilum using scissors. Any tissue remaining on the inside of the capsul e is removed and meticulous haemostasis is established by diathermy. The capsule is resutured with a continuous layer of 3 vicryl. The procedure is repeated on other side through the same skin incision and the wound closed using 3 vicryl to the tunica vaginalis and covering layers, and 4 subcuticular dexon to the scrotal skin. The procedure is completed by local dressing, a large gauze pressure pad and a scrotal support to prevent haematoma formation. During the operation, the patient was monitored and blood pressure, pulse rate and abnormal symptom were recorded; when surgery finished the patients pain score of the procedure (including pain of anaesthetic injection) was assessed immediately by using visual analog pain scale (0 = no pain, 5 = moderate pain and 10 = worst possible pain) . At 1-week follow-up, the patients symptom and wound were evaluated again. Discussion: An LHRH agonist is the preferred first option to treat patients with advanced prostatic cancer. However, clinical studies have suggested that an orchiectomy is superior to an LHRH agonist in that it more rapidly achieves castrate levels of testosterone, avoids the testosterone flare, is less expensive, and has superior therapeutic compliance (1, 8, 10, 14). If there were a castration procedure that did not adversely affect life satisfaction and the male image, this option might become more frequently recommended and chosen. Several attempts have been made to achieve this goal. In 1942, Riba pioneered the subcapsular orchiectomy, a procedure that involved the removal of the testicular parenchyma and the simple closure of the tunica albuginea (10, 13, 16, 17, 19). No difference was observed between patients who underwent a bilateral total orchiectomy and a subcapsular orchiectomy in preoperative and postoperative testosterone or luteinizing hormone levels( 5,17,19).Most importantly, serum PSA and 3-year survivals for patients undergoing a bilateral total orchiectomy and a subcapsular orchiectomy were determined to be similar (3,10). The technique of spermatic cord block is base on the anatomy 🙠 2, 3, 4, 18) .as the cord emerges from the external ring, it passes over the pubic tubercle and the shifted medially to the scrotum. In this region it is closely associated with the ilioinguinal nerve and the genital branch of genitofemoral nerve, which supply the testis and its covering, the epididymis and the vas deferens but not the scrotal skin. The scrotal skin receives sensory supply from the pudendal nerve and the perineal branch of the posterior cutaneous nerve of the thigh; therefore it needs to be infiltrated with the anesthetic agent separately from spermatic cord block (5, 9, 11, 12). Good result of spermatic cord block facilitates a successful orchiectomy. No complication related to anesthesia was detected in the series. The advantage of spermatic cord block is its short time of recover, low cost and may be performed in patient who has high risk of anesthesia (7, 11, 14, 18). 10 patients numbered thei r visual analog pain scale 10. Five had underlying anxiety disorder, while the other 5 one had severe pain that needed to be converted to general anesthesia which might have caused by his obesity (BW 86.5 kg, HT 165 cm, BMI 31.77 kg/m2; mean BW = 62.55 kg; patients who had success operation whose BW was in the range of 45 68 kg). other 4 patients have huge inguinal hernias that also make procedure more difficult .Obesity made it difficult to palpate the cord and inject anesthetic agent to the correct point, so the spermatic cord block did not work well. Three patients had bradycardia (pulse rate = 50|min. 49|min.54/ min) which might due to his vagovagal reflex when the cord was under traction; however they developed no other symptom or hypotension. Intrascrotal procedures can be performed easily with spermatic cord block rather than general anaesthesia. This offers advantages to both the patient and the treating hospital. For the patients the length of time spent in the recovery room, the chances of intraoperative anesthetic complications and the need for postoperative analgesia are all reduced. For the hospital the obvious advantages in terms of bed occupancy and cost saving may be realized (5, 9, 11, 12) We evaluated the cost-effectiveness of androgen suppression strategies for men with advanced prostate cancer. Our principal finding is that the effectiveness of orchiectomy is much less expensive. The subcapsular technique bypasses the need for prosthesis thus contributing to a lower cost when compared to total orchiectomy. Result: Of the 96 patients age 65 83 yr (mean =71.11 yr), operative time 20 55 min (mean 36.00 min), amount of anesthetic mixture 10 30 ml (mean = 20 ml) orchiectomy under spermatic cord block were successful in 91 96 (94.79 %). Five patients failed because they had so severe pain that needed to be converted to general anesthesia. Three patients had bradycardia (pulse rate = 50|min. 49|min.54/ min), 2 patients had tachycardia (pulse rate = 124/min, 102/min). None of patients had hypotension, nausea or vomiting. No complication related to the anesthesia nor the procedure was seen. Most of the patients felt little pain especially when monopolar electrocautery was used to cut the tissue or stop bleeding. Post-operatively, all of the patients ambulated immediately; 86 patients (89.47 %) rated their visual analog pain scale between 0 6; 10 patients (10.42%) numbered their visual analog pain 10 (5 of them converted from local to general anesthesia). When classify to mild (pain score 0-3/10), m oderate (pain score 4-6/10), and severe pain (pain score 7-10/10). 59 patients (61. 46 %) were in mild pain group, 27 patients (28.13 %) had moderate pain and severe pain in 10 patients (10.42 %) table-1. At 1-week follow-up, 2 patients suffer from surgical wound infection , one is admitted to hospital for dressing and debridement, the other treated as outpatient with wound dressing and oral antibiotic treatment; 5 patients had scrotal hematoma which improved with time and conservative treatment. Conclusion: Bilateral subcapsular orchiectomy is safely done under local anaesthesia, simple and coast effective. For preoperation, the patient needs to be explained the procedure and some symptoms that he may experience during the operation. Spermatic cord block is not suitable in patient with anxiety or obesity. They should receive general or spinal anesthesia.

International Monetary Fund (IMF) Essay -- IMF Economics Economy

International Monetary Fund (IMF) The international monetary fund or IMF, basically promotes international monetary harmony to simplify the expansion of international trade. In a more detailed view, it advocates global monetary understanding, monitors the exchange rate and financial policies of member nations, and provides credit for member countries that are experiencing a temporary unbalance of payments. Contrary to popular belief, It is not a world central bank which exists to help the economic development of poor, undeveloped countries, nor does it have any authority over its member’s domestic policies and regulations. It is a mutual establishment with voluntarily membership that enables its members to benefit from consultations with each other. This provides a stable environment for exchanging payments smoothly and quickly. Thus, the IMF greatly increases international trade, which, in effect, expands the world economy. How does this system work? Established by the United Nations at a conference held in 1944 at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, the IMF seeks monetary stability. At that time, because of all the recessions and the Great depression, people all over the world were demanding gold, instead of the national currency, beyond what national treasuries could supply. Therefore, many nations were coerced into abandoning the gold standard, which had given money a known and stable value. Now that countries could not depend on the steady value of gold, exchanging money became very difficult between the nations using gold and those that did not. These complications caused many of these nations to sell their products at a cheaper rate (way below its realistic value) just to undermine the trade of other nations selling the same products. There wasn’t a high demand for foreign currencies that weren’t backed by gold; governments weren’t willing to take the chance on foreign currency and its current rates. This global turmoil caused the UN to create the IMF to help regulate the International trade. From the headquarters in Washington D.C., membership is open to all independent countries with a current membership of 181 nations. On joining the fund, members are assigned a quota (a sort of membership fee) in special drawing rights or SDR, the fund’s unit of account whose value is based on the average value of five major currencies. Each member’s ... ...roversial debate in Congress raises the question of whether taxpayer money should go to the increasing contributions to the IMF. However, without this much needed assistance from the IMF, the Asian crisis will worsen with eventual negative consequences for the U.S. economy because these Asian countries will not be able to buy American goods or must cut prices so that American firms would find it hard to compete in international markets. Also, this financial affliction of Asian countries can harm U.S. security interests in Asia, claims Secretary of State, Madeleine Albright. Therefore, this policy of helping out member countries, especially by the United States, is greatly appreciated and needed by many unstable countries. By overseeing the international monetary system, the International Monetary Fund creates a more sturdy and prosperous world economy. The IMF assists countries with economic problems and consults its members on improving economic policies. By improving the exchange rates between nations, the IMF promotes a sturdy and healthy universal trade. Therefore, The International Monetary Fund is the necessary tool that helps the global economy continue into the future.

Quality of Education

10 A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY Alan Januszewski h e State University of New York at Potsdam Kay A. Persichitte University of Wyoming Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to provide a historical context for the current dei nition of educational technology. We will do this in several stages. First, we will review the primary purposes and considerations for dei ning educational technology. h en, we will review each of the four previous dei nitions, paying particular attention to the primary concepts included in each dei nition.We will examine the context and rationales for decisions made regarding each of these primary concepts. We will also present some of the historical criticisms of the dei nitions which provided the impetus for changing the dei nitions. h e criteria and purposes for producing a dei nition were discussed at the time of the writing of the i rst dei nition in 1963. A satisfactory dei nition of instructional technology wil l let us i nd common ground, will propose tomorrow’s horizons, and will allow for a variety of patterns that specii c individuals may follow in specii c institutions . . Research must be designed in terms of clear understanding of instructional technology. Superintendents of schools are requesting criteria for new personnel ER5861X_C010. indd 259 ER5861X_C010. indd 259 8/16/07 6:24:22 PM 8/16/07 6:24:22 PM260 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE needed in various phases of instructional improvement. Teacher-education institutions need assistance in planning courses for pre-service and in-service instruction that will provide the skills and understanding which will be required in tomorrow’s classrooms . . Let us consider the criteria for useful dei nitions. h ey should (a) clarify the description of the i eld in ordinary language; (b) summarize existing knowledge; (c) mediate applications of knowledge to new situations; and (d) lead to fruitful lines of experimental inquiry. . . . h is report aims to provide a working dei nition for the i eld of instructional technology which will serve as a framework for future developments and lead to an improvement in instruction. (Ely, 1963, pp. –8) h ose involved in the writing of the 1963 dei nition obviously believed that there were a lot of things to consider when dei ning educational technology. Or put dif erently, the existence of such a dei nition would have far reaching consequences, sometimes with implications that the authors might not intend. Acknowledging this opened the door to criticisms of the dei – nitions and the purposes cited for redei ning educational technology. h e authors of subsequent dei nitions all seemed to adhere, at least in part, to the purposes and criteria identii ed in the 1963 dei nition.The 1963 Definition h e leadership of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) recognized the 1963 dei nition of audiovisual communications as the i rst formal dei nition of educational technology (AECT, 1977). h is dei nition, the i rst in a series of four oi cially sanctioned dei nitions, was developed by the Commission on Dei nition and Terminology of the Department of Audiovisual Instruction (DAVI) of the National Education Association (NEA) and supported by the Technological Development Project (TDP).In 1963 audiovisual communications was the label that was used to describe the i eld as it was evolving from the audiovisual education movement to educational technology: Audiovisual communications is that branch of educational theory and practice primarily concerned with the design and use of messages which control the learning process. It undertakes: (a) the study of the unique and relative strengths and weaknesses of both pictorial and nonrepresentational messages which may be employed in the learning process for any purpose; and (b) the structuring and systematizing of messages by men and instruments in an educational environment. es e undertakings ER5861X_C010. indd 260 ER5861X_C010. indd 260 8/16/07 6:24:23 PM 8/16/07 6:24:23 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 261 include the planning, production, selection, management, and utilization of both components and entire instructional systems. Its practical goal is the ei cient utilization of every method and medium of communication which can contribute to the development of the learner’s full potential. (Ely, 1963, pp. 18–19) A footnote that was included as part of this dei nition read â€Å"the audiovisual communications label is used at this time as an expedient.Another designation may evolve, and if it does, it should then be substituted† (p. 18). Conceptual Shit s Signaled in Dei nitions h ere are three major conceptual shit s that contributed to the formulation of the dei nitions of educational technology as a theory: (1) the use of a â€Å"process† concept rather than a â€Å"product† concept; (2) the use of the terms messages and media instrumentation rather than materials and machines; and (3) the introduction of certain elements of learning theory and communication theory (Ely, 1963, p. 19).Understanding these three ideas and their impact on each other is essential to understanding the idea of educational technology in 1963. A technological conception of the audiovisual i eld called for an emphasis on process, making the traditional product concept of the i eld of educational technology untenable. h e Commission believed, â€Å"h e traditional product concept in the audiovisual i eld views the ‘things’ of the i eld by identifying machines, use of particular senses, and characteristics of materials by degrees of abstractness and/or concreteness† (Ely, 1963, p. 19).Members of the Commission preferred a process concept of the i eld which included â€Å"the planning, production, selection, management, and utilization of both components and ent ire instructional systems† (p. 19). h is process conception also emphasized â€Å"the relationship between events as dynamic and continuous† (p. 19). h e Commission argued that â€Å"materials† and â€Å"machines† were â€Å"things† or products and opted not to use those terms in the dei nition. Instead, the Commission used the terms messages and instruments. h e Commission further argued that materials and machines were interdependent elements. A motion picture and projector are inseparable as are all other materials requiring machines for their use† (Ely, 1963, p. 19). One was of little practical use without the other. h e Commission used the concept of media instrumentation to explain instruments. h e Commission said, â€Å"Media-instrumentation indicates the ER5861X_C010. indd 261 ER5861X_C010. indd 261 8/16/07 6:24:23 PM 8/16/07 6:24:23 PM262 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE transmission systems, the materials and devices available to carry s elected messages† (Ely, 1963, p. 20). e concept of media instrumentation also included the people who utilized the instruments in the educational environment as well as the transmission systems. h e idea that both people and instruments comprised media instrumentation was based in the broader concept of the man-machine system (Finn, 1957). In discussions of the relationship and integration of learning theory and communications theory to instructional technology, the Commission stated, â€Å"Certain elements of learning theory and communications theory of er potential contributions [to the i eld of educational technology]; e. . , source, message, channel, receiver, ef ects, stimulus, organism, response† (Ely, 1963, p. 20). h e Commission integrated learning theory and communications theory by identifying and combining the two systems basic to the process view of the i eld: the learning-communicant system and the educational-communicant system. h ese two systems use conce pts from both learning and communications theories that delineated and specii ed the roles of the individuals involved in the use of these systems. e learnercommunicant system â€Å"refers to the student population† and the educationalcommunicant system â€Å"refers to the professional persons in the school† (p. 23). h ese two systems could be of any size, ranging from a single classroom to large school systems (Ely, 1963). Merging the two communicant systems into a single model of the educational process provided the i eld of audiovisual communications with a theoretical framework (Ely, 1963) and a model that allowed educational technology to be viewed as a theoretical construct (AECT, 1977). e fundamental doctrine advanced by the writers of the i rst dei nition was that it was a â€Å"branch of educational theory and practice. † h e word theory was particularly important in this dei nition because it had a special place in the history of the audiovisual i eld, because of the status that it conferred on the i eld, and because of the expectation for further research to inl uence the evolution of that theory. Finn’s Characteristics of a Profession e 1963 dei nition was heavily inl uenced by James Finn’s (1953) six characteristics of a profession: (a) An intellectual technique, (b) an application of that technique to the practical af airs of man, (c) a period of long training necessary before entering into the profession, (d) an association of the members of the profession into a closely knit group with a high quality of communication ER5861X_C010. indd 262 ER5861X_C010. indd 262 8/16/07 6:24:24 PM 8/16/07 6:24:24 PM10.A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 263 between members, (e) a series of standards and a statement of ethics which is enforced, and (f) an organized body of intellectual theory constantly expanded by research. (p. 7) Of these six characteristics of a profession, Finn (1953) argued that â€Å"the most fundamental and most important characteristic of a profession is that the skills involved are founded upon a body of intellectual theory and research† (p. 8). Having established the importance of theory and research for a profession, Finn further explained his position by saying that â€Å". . this systematic theory is constantly being expanded by research and thinking within the profession† (p. 8). Finn was arguing that a profession conducts its own research and theory development to complement the research and theory development that it adapts/adopts from other academic areas. If educational technology was to be a true profession, it would have to conduct its own research and develop and its own theory rather than borrowing from more established disciplines like psychology.Finn (1953) evaluated the audiovisual i eld against each of the six characteristics and determined that the audiovisual i eld did not meet the most fundamental characteristic: an organized body of intellectual theory and research. â€Å"When the audiovisual i eld is measured against this characteristic . . . the conclusion must be reached that professional status has not been attained† (Finn, 1953, p. 13). h is argument was largely accepted by, and had a profound ef ect on, the leadership of the audiovisual i eld in the late 1950s and early 1960s.Finn (1953) laid a foundation that the audiovisual i eld was troubled by a â€Å"lack of theoretical direction† (p. 14). He attributed this to a â€Å"lack of content† and the absence of â€Å"intellectual meat† (p. 14) in the contemporary meetings and professional journals of the i eld. In his argument promoting the development of a theoretical base for the audiovisual i eld, Finn warned, Without a theory which produces hypotheses for research, there can be no expanding knowledge and technique.And without a constant attempt to assess practice so that the theoretical implications may b e teased out, there can be no assurance that we will ever have a theory or that our practice will make sense. (p. 14) Finn dedicated his career to rectifying this dei ciency in the i eld, and the resulting impact of his work on the 1963 dei nition is evident. Advancing an argument that audiovisual communications was a theory was an attempt to address the â€Å"lack of content† cited by Finn (1953). e Commission identii ed â€Å"the planning, production, selection, management, and utilization of both components and entire instructional systems† (Ely, ER5861X_C010. indd 263 ER5861X_C010. indd 263 8/16/07 6:24:24 PM 8/16/07 6:24:24 PM264 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE 1963, p. 19) as tasks performed by practitioners in the i eld directly related to Finn’s (1953) discussion of the â€Å"intellectual technique† of the audiovisual i eld—Finn’s i rst criterion for a profession. e i rst oi cial dei nition of educational technology can be viewed as an a ttempt to bring together remnants of theory, technique, other academic research bases, and history contained in the audiovisual literature, into a logical statement closing the gap on the â€Å"poverty of thought† (Finn, 1953, p. 13) that characterized the audiovisual education movement. h e evolution of audiovisual communications (and later, educational technology) as a theory began to add â€Å"intellectual meat† to audiovisual practice.By merging the audiovisual communications concept with the process orientation of the i eld into a new intellectual technique grounded in theory, the Commission strengthened the professional practice and of ered a direction for further growth as a profession. Emergence of a Process View Included among the many factors contributing to the development of the process view of educational technology were the two beliefs held by the most inl uential and prominent individuals involved with the audiovisual i eld: (1) that technology was prima rily a process (Finn, 1960b) and (2) that communication was a process (Berlo, 1960; Gerbner, 1956). e conceptual view of educational technology as a way of thinking and a process was established by the 1963 dei nition. h e intention of the Commission that produced the i rst oi cial dei nition of the i eld was â€Å"to dei ne the broader i eld of instructional technology which incorporates certain aspects of the established audiovisual i eld† (Ely, 1963, p. 3). Not unexpectedly, the 1963 dei nition drew some critique as it was applied to the emerging i eld of the 1960s and 1970s.Prominent individuals involved with audiovisual education, such as James Finn (1957; 1960a) and Charles Hoban (1962), had previously used the term technology when referring to the activities of the audiovisual i eld. Donald Ely (1973; 1982) observed that the use of the word control in the 1963 dei nition was problematic for many individuals involved with educational technology. Ely (1982) explained, â €Å"h e strong behavioral emphasis at the time seemed to call for the word ‘control’† (p. 3).He noted that the word facilitate was substituted by many professionals â€Å"to make the dei nition more palatable† (Ely, 1973, p. 52). Perhaps equally important was the desire by members of the i eld to move away from a behaviorally based psychology to a more humanistic psychology (Finn, 1967). ER5861X_C010. indd 264 ER5861X_C010. indd 264 8/16/07 6:24:24 PM 8/16/07 6:24:24 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 265 Criticisms of the 1963 Dei nition As noted in the introduction, no one dei nition can be the dei nition, and there were criticisms of the 1963 dei nition.James Knowlton (1964), a faculty member at Indiana University, was a consultant for the 1963 Commission on Dei nition and Terminology. In an essay that reviewed the 1963 dei nition, Knowlton stated that the dei nition itself was â€Å"couched in semiotical termsâ €  (p. 4) but that the conceptual structure used in the rationale for the 1963 dei nition â€Å"was couched in learning theory terms [and] this disjunction produced some surprising anomalies† (p. 4). Knowlton’s argument was based on a need for conceptual and semantic consistency in the dei nition.Knowlton argued that failing to pair the language of the dei nition with the language of the conceptual structure in the rationale resulted in a general lack of clarity about this new concept. h is lack of clarity in turn caused confusion in the direction of research and practice in the i eld. Less than a decade later, Robert Heinich (1970) saw a need to redei ne the i eld of educational technology for two reasons. First, he was critical of the â€Å"communications† based language used in the 1963 dei nition. Heinich argued that this language was too complicated for school personnel to interpret and apply.Second, Heinich argued that the power to make many of the deci sions regarding the use of technology in schools should be transferred from the teacher to the curriculum planners. Heinich’s argument for changing the dei nition was based on both linguistic concerns and evolutionary changes in the functions of practitioners in the i eld. Heinich promoted an approach to schooling where specialists would decide when and where schools would use technology. h is position was dif erent from that which was discussed in the rationale for the 1963 dei – nition.In the rationale for the 1963 dei nition, teachers were viewed as partners of educational technologists rather than as their subordinates (Januszewski, 2001). Forces Impelling a New Dei nition Other contemporary issues emerged which began to inl uence the i eld. h e report of the Presidential Commission on Instructional Technology (1970) stated that instructional technology could be dei ned in two ways: In its more familiar sense it means the media born of the communications revolution which can be used for instructional purposes alongside the teacher, textbook and blackboard.In general, the Commission’s report follows this usage . . . the commission has had to look at the pieces that ER5861X_C010. indd 265 ER5861X_C010. indd 265 8/16/07 6:24:25 PM 8/16/07 6:24:25 PM266 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE make up instructional technology: television, i lms, overhead projectors, computers and the other items of â€Å"hardware and sot ware. † (p. 19) h e second and less familiar dei nition . . . (Instructional technology) . . . s a systematic way of designing, carrying out, and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specii c objectives, based on research in human learning and communication and employing a combination of human and nonhuman resources to bring about more ef ective instruction. (Commission on Instructional Technology, 1970, p. 19) Educational technology professionals responded to this report in a special section of Audi ovisual Communications Review (1970). h e professional reviews of the government report were mixed at best. Ely (Ely et al. 1970) of Syracuse University thought that the Commission’s overall ef ort was commendable given its lot y charge. Earl Funderburk (Ely et al. , 1970) of the NEA called the recommendations a balanced program. But David Engler (Ely et al. , 1970) of the McGraw-Hill Book Company disapproved of the Commission’s ef ort to relegate the process-based dei nition of instructional technology to some â€Å"future† role. Leslie Briggs (Ely et al. , 1970) of Florida State University accused the Presidential Commission of providing a â€Å"two-headed image† of instructional technology by stressing both a hardware and a process orientation of the concept. e contributors to this special section of Audiovisual Communications Review (1970) were generally dissatisi ed with the â€Å"two-headed† orientation primarily because of the confusion it m ight cause among the potential client groups of educational technology. h ey viewed the hardware orientation favored by the Presidential Commission as a setback for the profession. It meant the unacceptable return to the â€Å"audiovisual aids† and â€Å"technology as machine† conceptions of educational technology. h is orientation also implied the de-emphasizing of research and theory.Given these professional discussions and developments, professionals in the i eld believed that a new dei nition of educational technology was necessary. The 1972 Definition By 1972, through evolution and mutual agreement, the DAVI had become the AECT. Along with the organizational change came a change to the dei nition. ER5861X_C010. indd 266 ER5861X_C010. indd 266 8/16/07 6:24:25 PM 8/16/07 6:24:25 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 267 h e newly formed AECT dei ned the term educational technology rather than the term audiovisual communications a sEducational technology is a i eld involved in the facilitation of human learning through the systematic identii cation, development, organization and utilization of a full range of learning resources and through the management of these processes. (Ely, 1972, p. 36) As a member of the group that wrote several of the early drat s of the 1972 dei nition, Kenneth Silber (1972) was successful in including changes in many of the roles and functions of the practitioners of the i eld as part of that dei nition.Silber introduced the term learning system which combined ideas of the open classroom movement with some of the concepts of educational technology. Like Heinich’s (1970) perspective, Silber’s (1972) â€Å"learning system† (p. 19) suggested changes in the roles of the teacher and the educational technologist. Unlike Heinich, Silber supported the idea that learners should make many decisions regarding the use of educational technology themselves. Educational techno logists would produce a variety of programs and designs that learners would use or adapt to meet their own â€Å"long-range learning destination† (p. 1). Silber’s position was that the teacher should be more a â€Å"facilitator of learning† and less a â€Å"teller of information. † A Dei nition Based on h ree Concepts h ere are three concepts central to the 1972 dei nition characterizing educational technology as a i eld: a broad range of learning resources, individualized and personalized learning, and the use of the systems approach. â€Å"It is these three concepts, when synthesized into a total approach to facilitate learning, that create the uniqueness of, and thus the rationale for, the i eld† (Ely, 1972, p. 7). Examining these three concepts along with the idea of educational technology as a â€Å"i eld† is crucial to understanding the AECT’s (1972) dei nition of educational technology. It is particularly important to recognize that dif erent interpretations of these three concepts would result in dif ering conceptions of the i eld through the next three decades. h e dif erent interpretations and relative emphases of these concepts were due in large part to dif erences in educational philosophy and educational goals.Dif ering interpretations of these concepts would also have the more visible ef ect of substantially dif erent products and processes developed in the i eld. h e writers of the 1972 dei nition seemed to be aware that the major concepts could be interpreted dif erently, and they seemed to be interested ER5861X_C010. indd 267 ER5861X_C010. indd 267 8/16/07 6:24:26 PM 8/16/07 6:24:26 PM268 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE in including individuals with dif erent philosophical and academic backgrounds in the i eld. e writers of the 1963 dei nition and its supporting rationale seemed less concerned with accommodating divergent educational philosophies. Perhaps this was due to the fact that the 1963 dei n ition was the i rst formal attempt to dei ne educational technology. Such an under taking was formidable enough. Perhaps it was because the writers of the 1972 dei – nition paid more attention to the discussions of educational philosophy in the literature from the rest of the i eld of education.Perhaps it was because the 1963 dei nition viewed educational technology as an educational theory and, potentially, as an educational philosophy itself. Regardless, there is no doubt that by 1972, the authors of the dei nition of educational technology chose to consider educational technology a i eld of study and not as a specii c theory (Januszewski, 1995, 2001). Educational Technology as a Field h e decision to refer to educational technology as a i eld of study rather than a theory or a branch of theory had at least four results: (1) we acknowledged that there was more than one theory of educational technology, ore than one way to think about the role(s) of educational technology; ( 2) the dei nition prompted signii cant philosophical discussions by members of the profession; (3) the use of the word i eld encompassed both the â€Å"hardware† and â€Å"process† orientations of instructional technology described by the Presidential Commission (1970); and (4) this dei nition was based on the â€Å"tangible elements† (Ely, 1972) that people could observe. e 1972 dei nition essentially dei ned educational technology by role and function rather than as an abstract concept, as was the case for the 1963 dei nition, where educational technology was viewed as a theory. h e concept of â€Å"i eld† has been a thorny one for educational technologists. Like many areas of study within education, it is very dii cult to discuss educational technology without using the word i eld as a descriptor. Certainly audiovisual professionals used the term to describe the â€Å"audiovisual i eld† before the terms instructional technology or educational te chnology were ever used. e 1963 dei nition statement frequently used i eld (Ely, 1963) to move the discussion along, even though it was argued that educational technology was a theory or branch of theory. On the surface, the use of i eld seems a rather inescapable semantic problem when speaking of educational technology. But it is signii cant that the writers of the 1972 dei nition chose to use i eld rather than theory in the dei nition because the use of the word i eld established a territory. It also provided certain legitimacy to ef orts to advance ER5861X_C010. ndd 268 ER5861X_C010. indd 268 8/16/07 6:24:26 PM 8/16/07 6:24:26 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 269 both products and processes. h e consequences of this decision were anticipated by Finn (1965), who proclaimed Properly constructed, the concept of instructional or educational technology is totally integrative. It provides a common ground for all professionals, no matter in what aspect of the i eld they are working: it permits the rational development and integration of new devices, materials, and methods as they come along. e concept is so completely viable that it will not only provide new status for our group, but will, for the i rst time, threaten the status of others [italics added]. (p. 193) Criticism of the 1972 Dei nition h e 1972 dei nition was not the object of numerous criticisms as was the 1963 dei nition, probably because it was considered only an interim dei nition (Ely, 1994). Only one such article appeared in the literature of the i eld of educational technology—a critique was written by Dennis Myers, then a graduate student at Syracuse University, and Lida Cochran, a faculty member at the University of Iowa (Myers & Cochran, 1973). e brief analysis by Myers and Cochran (1973) articulated at least i ve dif erent criticisms. First, they proposed including a statement in the rationale for the dei nition stating that students have a rig ht of access to technological delivery systems as part of their regular instruction. Including such a statement follows from Hoban’s (1968) discussion on the appropriateness of technology for instruction in a technological society. Second, Myers and Cochran argued that the 1972 dei nition statement was weakened by neglecting to include a theoretical rationale for the dei nition. is criticism, which correctly pointed out that the dei nition is lacking a unii ed theoretical direction, supported Heinich’s (1970) assertions in his philosophical view of the i eld. In a third point, Myers and Cochran (1973) criticized the limited role that the educational technologist was provided in the description of the systems approach provided in the dei nition. In a fourth point, they discussed the shortcomings of the terminology used to discuss the domains and roles in educational technology.Perhaps the most interesting point made in this analysis concerned the relationship of educati onal technology to the rest of the i eld of education. In noting the problem of dei ning the i eld by the functions performed, Myers and Cochran (1973) pointed to the importance of considering the purpose of education. ER5861X_C010. indd 269 ER5861X_C010. indd 269 8/16/07 6:24:26 PM 8/16/07 6:24:26 PM270 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE What is important is that certain functions get done in education. h at generalization is important because it conveys an attitude that transcends narrow professional nterests and strikes a note of community and cooperativeness, qualities which are essential to the solution of problems facing education and society. (p. 13) Here, Myers and Cochran (1973) seemed to be chastising the writers of the 1972 dei nition for being overly concerned with intellectual territory and the roles performed in the i eld of educational technology. h is particular criticism lost only a little of its sharpness when it was viewed in light of earlier comments made about the inap propriateness of the limited role assigned to educational technologists in the dei nition (Januszewski, 2001).In summary, by 1972, the name of the concept had changed from audiovisual communications to educational technology. h e organizational home for professionals in the i eld had changed name: from DAVI to AECT. h ere had been substantial changes in our schools, hardware, and other technological innovations during the nine years since the writing of the i rst dei nition. Educational technology was now identii ed as a i eld of study, open to interpretation by those who practiced within it. e 1972 dei nition rel ected these interpretations but was intended to be only a temporary measure. Almost as soon as it was published, work began on the next dei nition. The 1977 Definition In 1977, the AECT revised its dei nition of educational technology with its third version: Educational technology is a complex, integrated process, involving people, procedures, ideas, devices and organizati on, for analyzing problems and devising, implementing, evaluating and managing solutions to those problems, involved in all aspects of human learning.In educational technology, the solution to problems takes the form of all the Learning Resources that are designed and/or selected and/or utilized to bring about learning; these resources are identii ed as Messages, People, Materials, Devices, Techniques, and Settings. h e processes for analyzing problems, and devising, implementing and evaluating solutions are identii ed by the Educational Development Functions of Research h eory, Design, Production, Evaluation Selection, Logistics, Utilization, and Utilization Dissemination. h e processes of directing or coordinating one or more of hese functions are identii ed by the Educational Management Functions of Organizational Management and Personnel Management. (AECT, 1977, p. 1) ER5861X_C010. indd 270 ER5861X_C010. indd 270 8/16/07 6:24:27 PM 8/16/07 6:24:27 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECTâ₠¬â„¢S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 271 h e Dei nition of Educational Technology (AECT, 1977) was a 169-page book intended to accomplish two things: (a) systematically analyze the complex ideas and concepts that were used in the i eld of educational technology, and (b) show how these concepts and ideas related to one another (Wallington, 1977). is publication included the dei nition of educational technology (which comprises 16 pages of the text), a history of the i eld, a rationale for the dei nition, a theoretical framework for the dei nition, a discussion of the practical application of the intellectual technique of the i eld, the code of ethics of the professional organization, and a glossary of terms related to the dei nition. Educational Versus Instructional Technology h e conceptual dif erence between the terms educational technology and instructional technology constituted a large portion of the analysis of this book.Understanding how the authors of the 1977 dei niti on viewed the relationship of instructional technology to educational technology is essential to understanding the 1977 dei nition and its theoretical framework. h e basic premise of this distinction was that instructional technology was to educational technology as instruction was to education. h e reasoning was that since instruction was considered a subset of education then instructional technology was a subset of educational technology (AECT, 1977). For example, the concept of educational technology was involved in the solution of problems in â€Å"all aspects of human learning† (p. ). h e concept of instructional technology was involved in the solution of problems where â€Å"learning is purposive and controlled† (p. 3). Educational Technology as a Process Two other complex conceptual developments were also undertaken by the authors of the 1977 dei nition, which were interrelated. First, the 1977 dei – nition of educational technology was called a â€Å"pr ocess† (AECT, 1977, p. 1). h e authors intended the term process to connote the idea that educational technology could be viewed as a theory, a i eld, or a profession.Second, the systems concept was infused throughout the entire dei nition statement and in all the major supporting concepts for the dei nition in both its descriptive and prescriptive senses. h e authors of the 1977 dei nition connected these two conceptual developments by saying that the use of the systems concept was a process (AECT, 1977). As one of the three major supporting concepts for the 1972 dei nition of educational technology, the systems approach had become the basis for the ER5861X_C010. ndd 271 ER5861X_C010. indd 271 8/16/07 6:24:27 PM 8/16/07 6:24:27 PM272 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE dei nition itself by 1977. h rough their ef orts to reinforce the process conception of educational technology, the leadership of the i eld now assumed that all of the major supporting concepts of the dei nition were t ied to, or should be viewed in light of, the systems approach. h e three major supporting concepts of the 1977 dei nition were learning resources, management, and development.Learning resources were any resources utilized in educational systems; a descriptive use of the systems concept the writers of the 1977 dei nition called â€Å"resources by utilization. † Authors called the resources specii cally designed for instructional purposes, a prescriptive use of the systems approach, â€Å"resources by design† or â€Å"instructional system components† (AECT, 1977). Like the concept of learning resources, management could be used in a descriptive fashion to describe administrative systems or in a prescriptive way to prescribe action. e concept of management was ot en used as a metaphor for the systems approach in education (Heinich, 1970). h e term instructional development was frequently used to mean the â€Å"systems approach to instructional development† o r â€Å"instructional systems development† (Twelker et al. , 1972). h e fact that the management view of the systems approach to instruction ot en included an instructional development process and the fact that instructional development models frequently included management as a task to be completed in the systems pproach to instructional development further intertwined the systems concept with the process view of educational technology. h ese descriptive and prescriptive interpretations of the 1977 dei nition would inl uence future dei nitions. As previously noted, the predilection that educational technology was a process was not new when the 1977 dei nition was written. Process was one of the three major supporting concepts incorporated into the rationale of the 1963 dei nition (Ely, 1963).Believing that educational technology was a process provided one of the major reasons that the leadership of the profession tended to reject the report of the Presidential Commission on Instructional Technology (1970), which focused heavily on the hardware of the i eld in its i rst dei nition of instructional technology. h e authors of the 1977 dei nition, who purposefully used the term process to develop a systematic and congruent scheme for the concept of educational technology, said, h e dei nition presented here dei nes the theory, the i eld, and profession as congruent. is occurs because the dei nition of the i eld of educational technology is directly derived from, and includes, the theory of educational technology, and the profession of educational technology is directly ER5861X_C010. indd 272 ER5861X_C010. indd 272 8/16/07 6:24:28 PM 8/16/07 6:24:28 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 273 derived from, and includes, the i eld of educational technology. (AECT, 1977, p. 135) In the end, the ef ort to demonstrate the congruence of the major concepts involved with educational technology created as many issues for the i eld as it resolved.Five immediate advantages for describing educational technology as a process were (1) the use of the term process reinforced the primacy of the process view of educational technology over the product view of educational technology. h e process view had been outlined in the 1963 dei nition statement, but the report of the Presidential Commission on Instructional Technology (1970) appeared to reverse this emphasis. (2) h e term process would ground the dei nition of educational technology in the activities of its practitioners, activities that could be directly observed and verii ed. 3) h e term process could be used to describe educational technology as a theory, a i eld, or a profession. (4) h e term process allowed the further evolution of thought and research around the concept of systems. Finally, (5) an organized process implies the use of research and theory, which would reinforce the idea that educational technology was a profession. Educational Technology as F ield, h eory, or Profession h e authors of the 1977 dei nition argued that educational technology could be thought of â€Å"in three dif erent ways—as a theoretical construct, as a i eld, and as a profession† (AECT, 1977, p. 7). h ey continued, â€Å"None of the foregoing perspectives is more correct or better than the others. Each is a different way of thinking about the same thing† (p. 18). h e writers of the 1977 dei nition argued that the theoretical construct, the i eld, and the profession were all process based. h e term process described and connected all three of these perspectives of educational technology with a single word. Educational technology had been called a theory in the 1963 dei nition (Ely, 1963), and it had been called a i eld in the 1972 dei nition (Ely, 1972).New to the 1977 dei nition was the argument that educational technology was also a profession. Prior to the publication of the 1977 dei nition, the term profession was used in passing as it related to educational technology. Since Finn (1953) had argued that the i eld had not yet reached professional status, members of the i eld (e. g. , Silber, 1970) had made few attempts to analyze educational technology systematically as a profession. Using Finn’s criteria, the writers of the 1977 dei nition argued that educational technology was now a profession.Depending upon the interpretation and application of the systems concept, educational technology could be explained as a theory, a i eld, or a profession ER5861X_C010. indd 273 ER5861X_C010. indd 273 8/16/07 6:24:28 PM 8/16/07 6:24:28 PM274 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE in the 1977 dei nition. h e impact of using the term process to describe educational technology as a theory, a i eld, or a profession hinged on these dif ering interpretations of the systems approach, once again prompting discussions and philosophical debates among prominent educational technologists. e period of the 1980s was not so focused on c riticism of the 1977 dei nition as much as characterized by broad academic wrangling over the interpretation and application of the dei nition (Januszewski, 1995, 2001). h e three major supporting concepts of the 1977 dei nition—learning resources, management, and development—could also be interpreted dif erently based on divergent conceptions of the systems approach. h e dif erent interpretations of learning resources, management, and development also provided the writers of the 1977 dei nition with a rationale to distinguish between educational technology and instructional technology.The 1994 Definition By 1994, the dei nition of educational technology had nearly come full circle. h e dei nition that was produced in 1994 read, â€Å"Instructional technology is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning† (Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 1). h ere are no new concepts included in the 19 94 dei nition. What was new was the identii cation of multiple theoretical and conceptual issues in the explanation of the dei nition. e 1994 dei nition was intended to be much less complex than the 1977 dei nition. h e extent to which the writers were successful can be judged in part by reviewing the criticisms of the 1977 dei nition. h e attempt by the writers of the 1977 dei nition to show the congruence of educational technology and instructional technology revealed a conceptual problem for the i eld. h e dei nition of educational technology, which was concerned with â€Å"all aspects of human learning† (AECT, 1977, p. ), had become so broad that some individuals in the i eld of education pointed out that there was no dif erence between educational technology and curriculum, school administration, or teaching methods (Ely, 1982). Saettler (1990) wryly pointed out that the dei nition had become everything to everybody, and he dubbed the 1977 dei nition the â€Å"omnibus d ei nition. † Logical Problems h ere were also serious l aws in the reasoning and the conceptual interpretations used in the theoretical framework and rationale for the 1977 dei nition of educational technology.Establishing the dif erence between ER5861X_C010. indd 274 ER5861X_C010. indd 274 8/16/07 6:24:28 PM 8/16/07 6:24:28 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 275 education and instruction, the authors argued, â€Å"Education, then, includes two classes of processes not included in instruction: those processes related to the administration of instruction . . . and those processes related to situations in which learning occurs when it is not deliberately managed† (AECT, 1977, p. 56).An example of learning not deliberately managed given in the discussion was â€Å"incidental learning† (p. 56). It was reasonable for the authors to argue that nondeliberately managed learning and/or incidental learning was part of the concept of education (Januszewski, 1997). However, the dei nitions of â€Å"technology† by Galbraith (1967), Hoban (1962), and Finn (1960a, 1965), which were used by the authors of the 1977 dei nition to discuss the term technology as it related to the concept of educational technology, all included the ideas of organization, management, and control (AECT, 1977). e writers of the 1977 dei nition considered organization, management, and control critical characteristics of technology; but these ideas were contrary to the idea of â€Å"incidental learning† and â€Å"learning that was not deliberately managed. † Education, at least as it was distinguished from instruction included in the rationale of the 1977 dei nition, did not seem compatible with technology. It is dii cult to conceive of a technology of the incidental, unmanaged, and unintended. e gains made in the organization of the framework of the concept of educational technology by distinguishing between education and instruction were lost when education was paired with technology (Januszewski, Butler, & Yeaman, 1996). h eory or theoretical construct. h e relationship of educational technology to â€Å"theory† presented another problem in the discussion of educational technology presented in the 1977 dei nition and rationale. ere are three ways in which the concept of theory is related to educational technology in the 1977 dei nition statement: (1) the thought that educational technology was a â€Å"theoretical construct† (AECT, 1977, pp. 18, 20, 24); (2) the notion that educational technology itself was â€Å"a theory† (AECT, 1977, pp. 2, 135, 138); and (3) that the â€Å"dei nition of educational technology was a theory† (AECT, 1977, pp. 4, 20, 134). To some degree, all three of these discussions of theory and educational technology are accurate, but they cannot be used interchangeably as they are in the 1977 dei nition.A theoretical construct is not the same as a t heory; nor is it the case, that because a dei nition of a concept is a theory, the concept itself a theory. h e word theory has been used in at least four ways in the literature of the i eld of education: (1) the â€Å"law like† theory of the hard sciences; (2) theories that are supported by statistical evidence; (3) theories that identify variables that inl uence the i eld of study; and (4) theory as a systematic analysis of a set of related concepts (Kliebard, 1977). ER5861X_C010. indd 275 ER5861X_C010. ndd 275 8/16/07 6:24:29 PM 8/16/07 6:24:29 PM276 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE h e fourth sense of theory is of interest to this analysis of the 1977 dei nition of educational technology. Systematic analyses of any abstract concept can be said to be theories of that concept. Referring to educational technology as a theoretical construct, or a theory, or calling the dei nition of educational technology a theory may be accurate if the construct or theory includes a systematic an alysis of the concept of educational technology. e writers of the 1977 dei nition provided criteria for â€Å"theory† that was not theory as a systematic analysis of related concepts. h e 1977 view of theory was an attempt to establish general principles and predict outcomes (AECT, 1977). h is approach was substantially dif erent from the usage of the word theory in the 1963 dei nition statement. Further confusion arises because of the writers’ claim that educational technology did indeed meet the criteria for being a predictive theory (Januszewski, 1995, 2001).Certainly â€Å"educational technology† is a theoretical construct. â€Å"Educational technology† may also be considered a theory depending on what exactly is intended by the word theory. The 1977 definition of educational technology is a theory about the abstract concept of â€Å"educational technology. † But because the definition of the concept of educational technology may be a theory of educational technology, it does not necessarily follow that the concept of educational technology is itself a theory.This is similar to saying that a definition of the concept of democracy may be a theory of democracy but that the concept of democracy itself is not a theory. Few involved in the field of educational technology adopted this systematic treatment of the concepts provided in the 1977 definition. Many in the field adopted only portions of the definition (e. g. , Gustafson, 1981). Certain parts of the definition and the supporting statements were cited by scholars in order to make erudite points about the field of educational technology (e. . , Romiszowski, 1981), but a reading of the literature of the field during this era reveals that the whole of the conceptual framework provided in the 1977 definition, specifically the part intended to distinguish educational technology from instructional technology, was not widely accepted by the professionals in the field of educati onal technology (Seels & Richey, 1994). This lack of acceptance led to the label changes in the 1994 definition. Distinguishing between educational and instructional. e ef ort to revise the 1977 dei nition addressed some of the conceptual incongruencies of previous dei nitions. h e i rst of these was the dif erence between educational and instructional technology. Unlike the writers of the 1977 dei nition, who sought to distinguish between educational technology and instructional technology, ER5861X_C010. indd 276 ER5861X_C010. indd 276 8/16/07 6:24:29 PM 8/16/07 6:24:29 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 277 the authors of the 1994 dei nition acknowledged that this problem had no easy answer. ey admitted, â€Å"At present the terms ‘Educational Technology’ and ‘Instructional Technology’ are used interchangeably by most professionals in the i eld† (p. 5). But they argued, Because the term ‘Instructional T echnology’ (a) is more commonly used today in the United States, (b) encompasses many practice settings, (c) describes more precisely the function of technology in education, and (d) allows for an emphasis on both instruction and learning in the same dei nitional sentence, the term ‘Instructional Technology’ is used in the 1994 dei nition, but the two terms are considered synonymous. Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 5) With that, the oi cial label of the i eld was changed from â€Å"educational technology† to â€Å"instructional technology,† although it was quite acceptable to continue to use the term educational technology. Underlying Assumptions Seels and Richey (1994) did dif erentiate the 1994 dei nition from previous dei nitions by identifying and analyzing some of the assumptions that underlie this dei nition. Identii ed assumptions included Instructional technology has evolved from a movement to a i eld and profession.Since a profession is concerned with a knowledge base, the 1994 dei nition must identify and emphasize instructional technology as a i eld of study as well as practice (p. 2). A revised dei nition of the i eld should encompass those areas of concern to practitioners and scholars. h ese areas are the domains of the i eld (p. 2). Both process and product are of vital importance to the i eld and need to be rel ected in the dei nition (p. 2). Subtleties not clearly understood or recognized by the typical Instructional Technology professional should be removed from the dei nition and its more extended explanation (p. ). It is assumed that both research and practice in the i eld are carried out in conformity with ethical norms of the profession (p. 3). Instructional technology is characterized by ef ectiveness and ei – ciency (p. 3). h e concept of systematic is implicit in the 1994 dei nition because the domains are equivalent to the systematic process for developing instruction (p. 8). †¢ †¢ †¢ à ¢â‚¬ ¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ ER5861X_C010. indd 277 ER5861X_C010. indd 277 8/16/07 6:24:29 PM 8/16/07 6:24:29 PM278 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE h e inclusion of these ssumptions in the analysis and explanation accompanying the 1994 dei nition allowed for the publication of a dei nition that was much more â€Å"economical† than were previous dei nition ef orts. h eory and Practice h e authors of the 1994 dei nition stated that the dei nition was composed of four components: (a) theory and practice; (b) design, development, utilization, management and evaluation; (c) processes and resources; and (d) learning. h ese components were not necessarily new; but in this dei nition, they were reorganized, simplii ed, and connected, in a way making the 1994 dei nition unique. e 1994 dei nition used the phrasing included in the 1963 dei nition when it called instructional technology â€Å"the theory and practice of. † And the authors argued, â€Å"A profession must have a knowl edge base that supports practice† (Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 9). h e authors used a simple but rather clear notion that â€Å"theory consists of the concepts, constructs, principles, and propositions that contribute to the body of knowledge† and that â€Å"practice is the application of the knowledge† (p. 11).In so doing, the authors cleared up the problem of the meaning of theory that they had inherited from the writers of the 1977 dei nition, a dei nition of theory that had been too precise. Domains h e concepts (or â€Å"domains† of the 1994 dei nition) of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation comprise the accepted knowledge base of the i eld today as evidenced by the Standards for the Accreditation of School Media Specialist and Educational Technology Specialist Programs (AECT, 2000).When these concepts are taken together and conducted in sequential order, they are the same as the stages of â€Å"development† described in t he 1977 dei nition. h ese concepts are directly traceable to the idea of educational engineering developed by W. W. Charters (1945). It is important to realize that the authors of the 1994 dei nition did not intend that practitioners of educational technology perform all of these tasks in the sequential order. Specializing in or focusing on one of these tasks would include broad practitioners in the i eld (Seels & Richey, 1994).Seels and Richey (1994) provided dei nitions of processes and resources: â€Å"A process is a series of operations or activities directed towards a particular end† (p. 12). â€Å"Resources are sources of support for learning, including support systems and instructional materials and environments† (p. 12). h ese descriptions allowed the authors to (a) use process to reinforce notions of ER5861X_C010. indd 278 ER5861X_C010. indd 278 8/16/07 6:24:30 PM 8/16/07 6:24:30 PM10.A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 279 eng ineering and science in instruction; (b) maintain the distinction between resources as things and processes; and (c) be consistent with terminology used in all three previous dei nitions. h e concept of learning was not new to the 1994 dei nition; however, the dei nition of learning intended by the authors was new. In previous dei nitions, the term learning was intended to connote a change in behavior such as advocated by Tyler (1950). But the authors of the 1994 dei nition wanted to move away from a strong behaviorist orientation. ey argued, â€Å"In this dei nition learning refers to the ‘relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience’† (Mayer, 1982, as cited in Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 12). Including the phrase â€Å"due to experience† also aided in moving away from causal connections and allowed for incidental learning. h is interpretation signaled the acceptance of a dif erent kind of science in education: one less grounded on prediction and control and more interested in applying other theoretical and research principles to the instructional process.Criticism of the 1994 Dei nition h e primary criticism of the 1994 dei nition is that instructional technology appeared to look too much like the systems approach to instructional development while changes in the practice of the i eld (e. g. , constructivistbased initiatives and the general acceptance of computer innovations in classroom methodologies) made the 1994 dei nition too restrictive for mainstream teachers and school administrators as well as researchers and scholars. h ese criticisms and further evolution of the research and practice in the i eld led to a need for reconsideration and evision of this dei nition at er more than a decade of use. The Current Definition h e task force empanelled by AECT to review the 1994 dei nition wrestled with the historical issues presented here and with other issues of perception, changing employm ent and training expectations, semantics, and a strong desire to develop a dei nition that both served to include the broad variety of practitioners in this i eld and one which would prompt renewed attention to the theory and research so critical to our continued contributions to learning.In a sense, we are not so far removed in this century from the professional goal stated in the 1963 dei nition: ER5861X_C010. indd 279 ER5861X_C010. indd 279 8/16/07 6:24:30 PM 8/16/07 6:24:30 PM280 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE It is the responsibility of educational leaders to respond intelligently to technological change . . . If the DAVI membership is to support the leadership in such bold steps, dei nition and terminology as a basis for direction of professional growth is a prime prerequisite . . Now that the i eld of audiovisual communications, the largest single segment of the growing technology of instruction, has reached the point of decision making, we i nd ourselves in the same quandary ot her i elds have discovered when they have attempted to dei ne their i elds: i. e. , dei nition exists at various levels of understanding but no one dei nition can be the dei nition. (Ely, 1963, pp. 16–18)And so, the latest in the line of dei nitions of educational technology: â€Å"Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources. † References Association for Educational Communications and Technology. (1972). h e i eld of educational technology: A statement of dei nition. Audiovisual Instruction, 17, 36–43. Association for Educational Communications and Technology. (1977). h e dei nition of educational technology. Washington, DC: Author.Association for Educational Communications and Technology. (2000). Standards for the accreditation of school media specialist and educational technology specialist programs. Bloomington, IN : Author. Berlo, D. (1960). h e process of communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Charters, W. W. (1945). Is there a i eld of educational engineering? Educational Research Bulletin, 24(2), 29–37, 53. Commission on Instructional Technology. (1970). To improve learning: A report to the President and the Congress of the United States. Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Oi ce. Ely, D. P. (1963). e changing role of the audiovisual process: A dei nition and glossary of related terms. Audiovisual Communication Review, 11(1), Supplement 6. Ely, D. P. (1972). h e i eld of educational technology: A statement of dei nition. Audiovisual Instruction, 17, 36–43. Ely, D. P. (1973). Dei ning the i eld of educational technology. Audiovisual Instruction, 18(3), 52–53. ER5861X_C010. indd 280 ER5861X_C010. indd 280 8/16/07 6:24:31 PM 8/16/07 6:24:31 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 281 Ely, D. P. (1982). h e dei nition of educational technology: An emerging stability.Educational Considerations, 10(2), 24. Ely, D. P. (1994). Personal conversations. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University. Ely, D. P. , Funderburk, E. , Briggs, L. , Engler, D. , Dietrich, J. , Davis, R. , et al. (1970). Comments on the report of the Commission on Instructional Technology. Audiovisual Communications Review, 18(3), 306–326. Finn, J. D. (1953). Professionalizing the audiovisual i eld. Audiovisual Communications Review, 1(1), 617. Finn, J. D. (1957). Automation and education: General aspects. Audiovisual Communications Review, 5(1), 343–360. Finn, J. D. (1960a).Automation and education: A new theory for instructional technology. Audiovisual Communications Review, 8(1), 526. Finn, J. D. (1960b). Teaching machines: Auto instructional devices for the teacher. NEA Journal, 49(8), 41–44. Finn, J. D. (1965). Instructional technology. Audiovisual Instruction, 10(3), 192–194. Finn, J. D. (1967, August). Dia log in search of relevance. Paper presented at the Audiovisual Communication Leadership Conference, Lake Okoboji, Iowa. Galbraith, J. K. (1967). h e new industrial state. Boston: Houghton Mil in. Gerbner, G. (1956). Toward a general model of communication.Audiovisual Communications Review, 4, 171–199. Gustafson, K. (1981). Survey of instructional development models. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information Resources. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 211 097) Heinich, R. (1970). Technology and the management of instruction. Washington, DC: Association for Educational Communications and Technology. Hoban, C. F. (1962, March). Implications of theory for research and implementation in the new media. Paper presented at the Conference on h eory for the New Media in Education, Michigan State University, Lansing, Michigan. Hoban, C. F. (1968).Man, ritual, the establishment and instructional technology. Educational Technology, 10(5), 11. Januszewski, A. (1995). h e de i nition of educational technology: An intellectual and historical account. Ann Arbor, MI: Microi lms International. Januszewski, A. (1997, February). Considerations for intellectual history in instructional design and technology. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Albuquerque, New Mexico. ER5861X_C010. indd 281 ER5861X_C010. indd 281 8/16/07 6:24:31 PM 8/16/07 6:24:31 PM282 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE Januszewski, A. 2001). Educational technology: h e development of a concept. Libraries Unlimited: Englewood, CO. Januszewski, A. , Butler, R. , & Yeaman, A. (1996, October). Writing histories of visual literacy and educational technology. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Visual Literacy Association, Cheyenne, Wyoming. Kliebard, H. M. (1977). Curriculum theory: Give me a â€Å"for instance. † Curriculum Inquiry, 6(4), 257–269. Knowlton, J. Q. (1964). A conceptual scheme for the audiovisual i eld. Bulletin of the School of Education, Indiana University, 40(3). Myers, D. C. & Cochran, L. M. (1973). Statement of dei nition: A response. Audiovisual Instruction, 18(5), 11–13. Romiszowski, A. J. (1981). Designing instructional systems. London: Kogan Page. Saettler, P. (1990). h e evolution of American educational technology. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, Inc. Seels, B. , & Richey, R. (1994). Instructional technology: h e dei nition and domains of the i eld. Washington, DC: AECT Press. Silber, K. (1970). What i eld are we in, anyhow? Audiovisual Instruction, 15(5), 21–24. Silber, K. (1972). h e learning system. Audiovisual Instruction, 17(7), 10–27.Twelker, P. A. , Urbach, F. D. , & Buck, J. E. (1972). h e systematic development of instruction: An overview and basic guide to t

Profile of Serial Killer Jerry Brudos, AKA the Lust Killer

Profile of Serial Killer Jerry Brudos, AKA the Lust Killer Jerry Brudos was a shoe fetishist, serial killer, rapist, torturer, and necrophiliac who stalked women around Portland, Oregon in 1968 and 1969. The Early Years Jerry Brudos love for shoes began at the age of five after he rescued a pair of high-heel shoes from the garbage. As he grew older, his unusual interest in shoes developed into a fetish which he satisfied by breaking into homes to steal shoes and womens underwear. When he was in his teens he added violence to his repertoire and began knocking down girls, choking them until they were unconscious, then stealing their shoes. At age 17 he was sent to the Oregon State Hospital psychiatric ward after he confessed to holding a girl at knife-point in a hole he dug in the side of a hill for the purpose of keeping sex slaves. There he forced her to pose nude while he took pictures. Brudos was released from the hospital after nine months, even though it was clear he had developed a need to act out his violent fantasies towards women. According to his hospital records, his violence toward women developed from a deep hatred he felt for his mother. Married With Children Once out of the hospital he finished high school and became an electronics technician. Whether he refrained from acting out on his obsessions over the next few years or he just didnt get caught is unknown. What is known is that he married, moved to Portland, Oregon and he and his wife had two children. His mother later joined the family in their small suburban home. Brudos relationship with his wife began to falter after he approached her dressed in womens underwear. Up to that point, she had gone along with his strange bedroom habits, including his request that she walk around the house nude. Rejected by her lack of understanding of his need to wear womens underwear, he retreated to his workshop which was off-limits to the family. No longer intimate, the two remained married despite his wife discovering pictures of nude women and an odd molded breast among her husbands possessions. Brudos Known Victims Between 1968 and 1969 women in and around the Portland area began to disappear. In January 1968, Linda Slawson, 19, working as a door-to-door encyclopedia salesperson, happened to knock on Brudos door. He later confessed to killing her, then cutting off her left foot to use as a model for his collection of stolen shoes. His next victim was Jan Whitney, 23, whose car broke down while driving home from college in November 1968. Brudos later admitted to strangling Whitney in her car, then having sex with her body and bringing her corpse back to his workshop where he continued to violate the body for several days while it hung from a hook on his ceiling. Before disposing of her body he cut off her right breast in order to make a mold from it in the hopes of making paperweights. On March 27, 1969, Karen Sprinker, 19, vanished from the parking garage of a department store where she was to meet her mother for lunch. Brudos later confessed to forcing her into his car at gunpoint, then bringing her to his workshop where he raped her and forced her to put on various womens underwear and pose for pictures. He then killed her by hanging her from the hook in his ceiling. As with his other victims, he violated her corpse, then removed both breasts and disposed of her body. Linda Salee, 22, became Brudos next and last known victim. In April 1969 he kidnapped her from a shopping mall, brought her to his home and raped and then strangled her to death. Like all of his victims, he disposed of her body in a nearby lake. The End of the Killing Spree During the two-year killing spree, Brudos attacked several other women who managed to escape. The clues they were able to provide police eventually led them to Brudos door. While in custody at police headquarters, Brudos gave a detailed confession of the four murders. A search of his home gave police the additional evidence they needed to convict Brudos of three of the four murders. Included in the evidence were various photographs he took of his victims posed in his collection of womens underwear, parts of the corpses which had been found in a lake, along with some of his victims body parts stored in his home. He was convicted and given the death penalty and a life sentence. On March 28, 2006, Brudos, 67, was found dead in his cell at Oregon State Penitentiary. It was determined that he died of natural causes. Source Rule, Ann. Lust Killer. Books: Lust Killer by Ann Rule

Brigadier General Adolph von Steinwehin the Civil War

Brigadier General Adolph von Steinwehin the Civil War Adolph von Steinwehr - Early Life: Born at Blankenburg, Brunswick (Germany) on September 25, 1822, Adolph von Steinwehr was a member of a long-standing military family.   Following in these footsteps, which included a grandfather who had fought in the Napoleonic Wars, Steinwehr entered the Brunswick Military Academy.   Graduating in 1841, he received a commission as a lieutenant in the Brunswick Army.   Serving for six years, Steinwehr grew dissatisfied and elected to move to the United States in 1847.   Arriving at Mobile, AL, he found employment as an engineer with the US Coastal Survey.   As the the Mexican-American War was underway, Steinwehr sought a position with a combat unit but was declined.   Disappointed, decided to return to Brunswick two years later with his American-born wife, Florence Mary. Adolph von Steinwehr - The Civil War Begins: Again finding life in Germany not to his liking, Steinwehr permanently immigrated to the United States in 1854.   Initially settling in Wallingford, CT, he later moved to a farm in New York.   Active in the German-America community, Steinwehr proved well-placed to raise a largely German regiment when the Civil War began in April 1861.   Organizing the 29th New York Volunteer Infantry, he was commissioned as the regiments colonel in June.   Reporting to Washington, DC that summer, Steinwehrs regiment was assigned to Colonel Dixon S. Miles division in Brigadier General Irvin McDowells Army of Northeastern Virginia.   In this assignment, his men took part in the Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run on July 21.   Held in reserve during much of the fighting, the regiment later helped cover the Union retreat.    Noted as a competent officer, Steinwehr received a promotion to brigadier general on October 12 and orders to assumed command of a brigade in Brigadier General Louis Blenkers division in the Army of the Potomac.   This assignment proved short-lived as the Blenkers division was soon transferred to western Virginia for service in Major General John C.  Frà ©monts Mountain Department.   In the spring of 1862, Steinwehrs men took part in operations against Major General Thomas Stonewall Jacksons forces in the Shenandoah Valley.   This saw them defeated at Cross Keys on June 8.   Later in the month, Steinwehrs men were moved east to help form Major General Franz Sigels I Corps of Major General John Popes Army of Virginia.   In this new formation, he was elevated to lead the Second Division.   Ã‚      Adolph von Steinwehr - Divisional Command: In late August, Steinwehrs division was present at the Second Battle of Manassas though was not heavily engaged.   Following the Union defeat, Sigels corps was ordered to remain outside of Washington, DC while the bulk of the Army of the Potomac moved north in pursuit of General Robert E. Lees Army of Northern Virginia.   As a result, it missed the Battle of South Mountain and Antietam.   During this time, Sigels force was re-designated XI Corps.   Later that fall, Steinwehrs division moved south to join the army outside Fredericksburg, but played no role in the battle.   The following February, following Major General Joseph Hookers ascent to lead the army, Sigel left XI Corps and was replaced by Major General Oliver O. Howard. Returning to combat in May, Steinwehrs division and the rest of XI Corps were badly routed by Jackson during the Battle of Chancellorsville.   Despite this, Steinwehrs personal performance was commended by his fellow Union officers.   As Lee moved north invade Pennsylvania in June, XI Corps followed in pursuit.   Arriving at the Battle of Gettysburg on July 1, Howard directed Steinwehrs division to remain in reserve on Cemetery Hill while he deployed the rest of the corps north of town in support of the late  Major General John F. Reynolds I Corps.   Later in the day, XI Corps collapsed under Confederate assaults leading the entire Union line to fall back on Steinwehrs position.   The next day, Steinwehrs men aided in repelling enemy attacks against East Cemetery Hill.    Adolph von Steinwehr- In the West: Late that September, the bulk of XI Corps along with elements of XII Corps, received orders to shift west to Tennessee.   Led by Hooker, this combined force moved to relieve the besieged Army of the Cumberland at Chattanooga.   On October 28-29, Steinwehrs men fought well in the Union victory at the Battle of Wauhatchie.   The following month, one of his brigades, led by Colonel Adolphus Buschbeck, supported Major General William T. Sherman during the Battle of Chattanooga.   Retaining leadership of his division through the winter, Steinwehr was dismayed when XI Corps and XII Corps were combined in April 1864.   As part of this reorganization, he lost his command as the two formations were consolidated.   Offered command of a brigade, Steinwehr refused to accept a tacit demotion and instead spent the rest of the war in staff and garrison posts. Adolph von Steinwehr - Later Life: Leaving the US Army on July 3, 1865, Steinwehr worked as a geographer before accepting a teaching post at Yale University.   A gifted cartographer, he produced a variety of maps and atlases over the next several years as well as authored numerous books.   Moving between Washington and Cincinnati later in his life, Steinwehr died at Buffalo on February 25, 1877.   His remains were interred at Albany Rural Cemetery in Menands, NY.               Selected Sources Find a Grave: Adolph von SteinwehrOfficial Records: Adolph von Steinwehr