Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs: Mechanisms of Action

Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs Mechanisms of ActionNon-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs atomic number 18 a type of drugs that can be use as spite killers. Nowadays, other disquiet killers such as paracetamol are more widely used, as they have less side effects, and cost less. However, NSAIDs are mostly used in conditions which cause inflammation. It may take from a few days to more than three weeks to install their anti-inflammatory effects. They are specifically used to treat arthritis, menstrual cramps, sports injuries, and headaches. There are different types of NSAIDs that are used in different situations. For example, Ketorolac (Toradol) is unless used for short-term treatment of moderately severe acute pain that otherwise would be treated with opioids. (Ogbru, 1997). Aspirin is also a NSAID that is used long-term, at low doses, specifically to inhibit ocellus clot formation and prevent heart fill outs and strokes in individuals at high risk for developing bloo d clots.The most common and undesirable side effects of NSAIDs are nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, decreased appetite, constipation, rash, dizziness and headache. The most severe side effects are kidney failure, liver failure, ulcers and prolonged bleeding later on an injury or surgery (Ogbru, 1997).Mechanisms of ActionProstaglandins are a group of lipid compounds that are produced by specific group of enzymes called cyclooxygenases from arachidonic back breaker (Zeilhofer, 2007), which promote vital functions in inflammation, pain, fever support the blood clotting function of platelets and protect the lining of the stomach from the damaging effects of acid (Ogbru, 1997) (Figure 1). agency of action of NSAIDs is to exert anti-inflammatory, analgesic (pain relieving), and antipyretic (fever-reducing) effects through the blockade of prostaglandin synthesis via non- discriminating quelling of cyclooxygenases (COX-1 and cyclooxygenase-2) isozymes (Chakraborti et al., 2010).Both COX-1 a nd cyclooxygenase-2 enzymes produce prostaglandins that serve inflammation, pain and fever. However, only COX-1 produces and regulates prostaglandins that protect the stomach (gastrointestinal) and support platelets (Ogbru, 1997) (Figure 2).NSAIDs reduce the concentration of prostaglandins throughout the body by blocking the COX enzymes. As a exit of this, ongoing inflammation, pain and fever are decreased. For example, when concentration of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) elevates in certain parts of the brain, body temperature increases. This increase in body temperature changes the firing rate of neurons that tame thermoregulation in the hypothalamus. Aspirin which can act as an antipyretic, work by inhibiting the enzyme cyclooxygenase and reducing the levels of PGE2 within the hypothalamus of the brain. As a consequence, body temperature falls, and fever is meliorate (Aronoff Neilson, 2001).It is important to understand that the pain pathway is not the same for fever and other cases care tissue injuries. In tissue injury, prostaglandins together with other agents like histamine, act on the sensory neurons present in the injured or stimulated tissue which in turn conduct the generated signal to the spinal cord. The cortico sensory nerve fibres (neurons) transmit the pain signal to the spinal cord. The signal is then propagated from the spinal cord to the pain centres in brain. This is carried out by synapse formation between afferent sensory neuron in the dorsal root ganglion of the spinal cord, transferring the signal up the spinothalamic tract to synapse in the thalamus. Therefore the final synapse with the primary sensory mantle fibres occurs in the thalamus (Lorne, 2010) (Figure 3 4). As a result of this, pain centres in brain will become alerted and body will feel the pain. Therefore, prostaglandin synthesis inhibition by NSAIDs will result in pain pathway blockage, hence reducing or killing the pain.Irrespective of the type of injured tissue (ligament , brawn or muscle), the body reacts to injury with a sequence of events that initiates with an influx of inflammatory cells and blood. Removal of debris and recruiting growth factors e.g. cytokines toward the injury site are the attendant events that are carried out by the inflammatory cells. The same Prostaglandins that are blocked by NSAIDs are partly involved in this inflammatory stage. In a principle healing process (without application of NSAIDs), a proliferative stage consisting of a mixture of fibroblasts and inflammatory cells naturally follows the inflammatory stage. At this stage, the fibroblasts construct a new extracellular matrix and continue into the maturation stage (final stage) where functional tissue is laid down. The crucial point is that each stage of repair is a prerequisite for the subsequent stage. Hence, although blocking the inflammatory stage by NSAIDs relieves the pain, it may delay the healing of musculoskeletal injuries (Stovitz Johnsons, 2003).Side effects of NSAIDs such as ulcers and bleeding promotion are due to reduction in bodys prostaglandin level which protects the stomach and supports platelets and blood clotting. In other words, NSAIDs like aspirin, especially in high doses, act as pain killers by reducing prostaglandin concentration however, this reduction can also raise severe unwanted effects like ulcers (Ogbru, 1997).There are various NSAIDs in terms of potency, duration of action, body elimination manner, how strongly they inhibit COX-1 and their angle of inclination to cause ulcers or promote bleeding. The more an NSAID blocks COX-1, the greater is its tendency to cause ulcers and promote bleeding. One NSAID,celecoxib(Celebrex), blocks COX-2 but has little effect on COX-1, and is at that placefore further classified as a selective COX-2 inhibitor. SelectiveCOX-2 inhibitorscause less bleeding and fewer ulcers than other NSAIDs. (Ogbru, 1997).Rofecoxib (tradename = Vioxx)In 1999, two new highly selective COX-2 in hibitors, known as coxibs (celecoxib and rofecoxib) which were claimed to have low gastrointestinal (GI) side effects were introduced which resulted in high commercial development. Rofecoxib (Vioxx) was introduced by Merck (one of the largest pharmaceutical companies) as a more effective and a safer alternative to NSAIDs for the treatment of pain associated with osteoarthritis (Krumholz et al., 2007).While found to have fulfilled these goals in part, a worrying serial of events took place in the late 2004 period when rofecoxib was withdrawn worldwide from the market because of alarming cardiovascular incidents and concerns about increased risk of heart attack and stroke due to long-term, high-dosage use. Other coxibs were subsequently withdrawn on suspicion of having the same adverse effects, although to a varying degree (Rainsford, 2007).Previous to introducing the drug to the market, it were have-to doe with that the drug might have adverse effects on the cardiovascular system b y changing prostacyclin to thromboxane ratio, which have opposite effects on regularisation blood flow and clotting. (Prostacyclin and thromboxane are members of the family of lipids known as eicosanoids.) (Krumholz et al., 2007)A study sponsored by Merck during 1996-1997 reported that rofecoxib decreased the concentration of prostacyclin metabolites in urine in healthy volunteers by about half. Merck officials sought to softenthe academic authors interpretation that COX-2 inhibition within the vascular endothelium may increase the propensity for thrombus formation, the root word of what becameknown as the FitzGerald hypothesis. The academic authors changedthe manuscript at Mercks request-for example, they changedsystemic biosynthesis of prostacyclin was decreased byrofecoxib to Cox-2 may play a role in the systematic biosynthesisof prostacyclin. (Krumholz et al., 2007).However, despite knowing that rofecoxib may elevate thrombus formation, none of the studies that constituted Me rcks new drug application to the Food and Drug brass section (FDA) in 1998 were designed to examine cardiovascular risk. The studies were all generally small, had short treatment periods, enrolled patients at low risk of cardiovascular disease, and did not have a standardised procedure to collect cardiovascular results (Krumholz et al., 2007).In 1999, the largest study on rofecoxib, the vioxx gastrointestinal outcomes research (VIGOR), took place by Merck. The purpose of the study was to maneuver that the drug would have fewer GI side effects than naproxen (NSAID) for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. The study took place without a standard procedure for salt away information on cardiovascular events. Finally, the study showed that rofecoxib was not more effective in terms of mitigating symptoms of arthritis but halved the risk of GI events. However, the study showed that there was also evidence of an increased risk of myocardial infarction. Therefore, the first suspicion ab out the metabolite meanings i.e. urine prostacyclin data was right. Nevertheless, Merck decided to propose a naproxen assumption, implying that rofecoxib had not been harmful but that naproxen had been protective, despite having no evidence that naproxen had a protective effect on cardiovascular system (Krumholz et al., 2007).Finally, after wide usage of Vioxx in clinical centres around the world for around 5 years, due to an increase in serious cardiovascular events, the beau monde voluntarily withdrew Vioxx from the market, in 2004.Currently, a lot of studies are taking place to discover why cardiovascular failures took place with coxibs, to identify safer coxibs, and to clarify the roles of COX-2 and COX-1 in cardiovascular diseases and stroke in order to develop newer agents to control these conditions (Rainsford, 2007).Overall, in order to improve the care of patients and gain their trust back, put patients interests first is necessary. A renewed commitment and re-establishin g collaborations between industry, academics, journals and practising doctors are the only way to extract something positive from this unfortunate event.